ABSOLUTE POVERTY. Poverty as defined in terms of the minimal requirements
necessary to afford minimal standards of food, clothing, health care and
shelter.
ACHIEVED STATUS. A position attained through personal ability and effort.
ACID RAIN. The increased acidity of rainfall which is caused by emissions of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from power plants and automobiles.
ACUTE DISEASE. A short-term disease (such as influenza or pneumonia) from
which a person either dies or recovers.
ADAPTATION. Refers to the ability of a sociocultural system to change with the
demands of a changing physical or social environment. The process by which
cultural elements undergo change in form and/or function in response to change
in other parts of the system.
ADULT SOCIALIZATION. The process of learning new roles in maturity.
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION. Government programs intended to assure minorities and
women of equal hiring or admission opportunities.
AGE COHORT. A group of people born around the same time.
AGE DISCRIMINATION. The differential treatment of people based solely on their age.
AGE-SEX STRUCTURE (AGE-SEX PYRAMID). The relative proportions of different age
sex categories in a
population.
AGEISM. Prejudice against a person on the grounds of age in the belief that the
age category is inferior to other age categories and that unequal treatment is
therefore justified.
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION. Groups or institutions within which processes of
socialization take place (see also
SOCIAL REPRODUCTION).
AGRARIAN SOCIETIES. Societies whose mode of production is based on agriculture
(crop-growing) primarily through the use of human and animal energy. Also
referred to as agricultural societies (see also
TRADITIONAL STATES).
AGRIBUSINESS. The mass production of agricultural goods through mechanization,
and rationalization.
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency). A disease that attacks the immune system of
the body that is often passed on through sexual contact.
AIR POLLUTION. Refers to the contamination of the atmosphere by noxious
substances (see also
DEPLETION,
ENVIRONMENT, and
INTENSIFICATION).
ALIENATION. The sense that we have lost control over social institutions that we
have created. Often characterized as estrangement from the self and from the
society as a whole. Marx believed that general alienation was rooted in the loss
of control on the part of workers over the nature of the labor task, and over
the products of their labor.
ANDROGYNY. The blending of traditional feminine and masculine traits.
ANOMIA. A condition of anxiety and confusion that exists in individuals who are
not given clear social guidance through social norms.
ANOMIE. A structural condition in which social norms are weak or
conflicting.
ANOMIE THEORY. Robert K. Merton's theory of deviance which holds that many
forms of deviance are caused by a disjunction between society's goals and the
approved means to achieve these goals; also called "structural strain theory."
ANIMISM. A type of religion that believes that events in the world are often
caused by the activities of spirits.
ANTHROPOLOGY. A social science, closely linked to sociology, which concentrates
(though not exclusively) on the study of traditional cultures--particularly
hunting and gathering and horticultural societies--and the evolution of the
human species.
ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION. Learning new roles and attitudes in preparation to joining a group.
ANTI-SEMITISM. Prejudice or discrimination against Jews.
APARTHEID. Until recently, the system of strict racial segregation established
in South Africa.
APPLIED SOCIOLOGY. The use of sociology--both theory and methods--in solving
social problems.
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY. Technology that is designed with the needs,
values, and capabilities of the user in mind.
ARMS RACE. A competition between nations in which each side attempt to achieve
or maintain military superiority.
ARMS TRADE. The international selling of armaments for profit, carried on by
governments and by private contractors around the world.
ARRANGED MARRIAGE. Marriage based on the family ties rather than the
couple's personal preferences.
ASCRIBED STATUS. A social position that is given at birth (such as race or
sex).
ASSIMILATION. A minority group's internalization of the values and norms of the
dominant culture.
AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY. A set of distinctive personality traits, including
conformity, intolerance, and an inability to accept ambiguity.
AUTHORITY. Power that is attached to a position that others perceive as
legitimate.
AUTOCRATIC RULE. Rule by a specific leader, who concentrates power in his own
hands.
AUTOMATION. The replacement of many workers by machines, as well as the
monitoring and coordination of workers by machines with only minimal supervision
from human beings.
BALANCE OF POWER. The theory that military conflict can be avoided if both sides have roughly equivalent military power.
BELIEFS. Shared ideas held by a collective of people within a sociocultural system.
BILATERAL KINSHIP. Tracing descent through both the mother and father (as in present day America).
BIOETHICS. Ethical questions relating to life and the biological well-being of
the planet.
BUREAUCRACY. A formal organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority, the
existence of written rules of procedure, staffed by full-time salaried
officials, and striving for the efficient attainment of organizational goals.
BUREAUCRATIZATION. Refers to the tendency of bureaucracies to refine their
procedures to ever more efficiently attain their goals. More generally,
refers to the process of secondary organizations taking over functions performed
by primary groups (see also
INTENSIFICATION, and
RATIONALIZATION).
CAPITALISM. An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of
production and distribution in which the goal is to produce profit.
CAPITALISTS. Those who own companies, or stocks and shares, using these to
generate economic returns or profits.
CARRYING CAPACITY. The number of a species that a particular ecosystem can
support without suffering irreversible deterioration (see also
ECOLOGY).
CASH-CROP PRODUCTION. Production of crops for world markets rather than for
consumption by the local population.
CASTE. A closed form of stratification in which an individual's status is
determined by birth and cannot be changed.
CAUSATION. A 'cause and effect' relationship exists wherever a change in one
variable (the independent variable) induces change in another (the dependent
variable). Causal factors in sociology include individual motivation as well as
many external influences on human behavior that often go unrecognized.
CENSUS. A count of the population, often including a detailed profile of that population.
CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY. Rests on the extraordinary characteristics of the leader attributed to them by followers.
CHRONIC DISEASE. Disease of long duration, often not detected in its early
stages, and from which the patient will not recover (such as high blood pressure
or diabetes).
CHURCH. A body of people belonging to an established religious organization.
CITIZEN. A member of a state, having both rights and duties associated with that
membership.
CIVIL DISORDERS. Social conflict (such as riots) that the government
becomes involved in to restore public order.
CIVIL RELIGION. Secular forms of ritual and belief similar to those involved in
religion--such as political parades or ceremonies.
CIVIL RIGHTS. Legal rights held by all citizens in a given state.
CLAN. A broad extended kin group found in many preindustrial societies.
CLASS. Most sociologists use the term to refer to socioeconomic differences
between groups of individuals which create differences in their life chances and
power.
CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS. An objective awareness of the class system, including the
common interests of people within your class.
COGNITION. Human thought processes including perception, reasoning, and
remembering.
COHABITATION. Living together in a sexual relationship of some permanence,
without being legally married.
COLLECTIVE ACTION. Social action undertaken in a relatively spontaneous way by a
large number of people.
COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE (OR CONSCIOUS). Common beliefs and values that guide human behavior. Durkheim posited that such a conscience was necessary for maintaining the social order.
COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE. Large numbers of people engaging in violent social
behavior.
COLONIALISM. The process whereby nations establish their political and economic
rule over less powerful nations.
COMMODITY CHAINS. The raw material, production, and labor network responsible for the fashioning of products. Commodity chains often span the globe, with some countries profiting greatly for their contribution to the chain, and others clearly being exploited.
COMMODITY RIOTS. Riots in which the focus of violence is the destruction
of property.
COMMUNAL RIOTS. Riots in which the focus of violence is other groups
(usually other race or ethnic groups).
COMMUNICATION. The transmission of information from one individual or group to
another.
COMMUNISM. A set of egalitarian political and economic ideas associated with
Karl Marx in which the means of production and distribution system would be
owned by the community. "Communism" as developed by Lenin and institutionalized
throughout Eastern Europe (until 1990) and China bears little resemblance to
Marx's vision.
COMMUNITY. A group of people who share a common sense of identity and
interact with one another on a sustained basis.
COMPARABLE WORTH. The evaluation of jobs dominated by women and those
traditionally dominated by men on the basis of training, skills, and experience
in attempts to equalize wages.
CONCEPT. Any abstract characteristic that can potentially be measured.
CONFLICT. A clash of interest (sometimes escalating to active struggle) between
individuals, groups or society.
CONFLICT THEORY. A social theory that emphasizes the role of power, authority,
coercion, and manipulation in maintaining social order.
CONFORMITY. Human behavior which follows the established norms of a group or
society. The bulk of human behavior is of a conforming nature as people accept
and internalize the values of their culture or subculture
CONGLOMERATES. Large corporations made up of separate companies producing or
trading in a variety of different products and services. Conglomerates are
usually the result of mergers between companies or take-overs of one firm by
another.
CONSENSUS. Agreement on basic social values by the members of a group or
society.
CONTENT ANALYSIS. The analysis of cultural meanings through artifacts such as
books, documents, songs, and other communications.
CONTINGENCY WORK. Temporary, part-time, or "contracted" employment for the
duration of the project. Contingency work is one of the fastest growing
employment sectors in America as it enables employers to expand and contract
their workforce with the vagaries of the market and allows them to avoid costly
fringe benefits and other commitments of long-term employment.
CONTRADICTION. Marx's term to refer to mutually antagonistic tendencies within
institutions or the broader society such as those between profit and
competition within capitalism.
CONTRADICTORY CLASS LOCATIONS. Positions in the class structure which share
characteristics of the class positions both above and below them--the classic
position would be that of a foreman in a factory or a department chair in
academe.
CORE COUNTRIES. The advanced industrial societies of America, Western Europe and
Japan are often referred to as core countries because of their central position
on the world stage (see also
PERIPHERY COUNTRIES and
SEMI-PERIPHERY COUNTRIES).
CORPORATIONS. A legally recognized organization set up for profit--the powers
and liabilities of the organization are legally separate from the owners or the
employees.
CORRELATION. The relationship between two variables in which they vary
together--say a correlation between the income of parents and reading ability
among primary school children. Statistical correlation can vary from -1 to 1 (a
0 indicates no correlation between the variables). A positive correlation
between two variables exists where a high score on one is associated with a high
score on the other. A negative correlation is where a high score on one variable
is associated with a low score on the other.
COUNTER CULTURE. A sub-culture that is opposed to the ideas, beliefs, or behaviors of the dominant culture.
COUP D'ETAT. An armed takeover of government by a small group of
conspirators--often military officers ( See also
REBELLION and
REVOLUTION) .
CREATED ENVIRONMENT. Human constructions such as buildings, roads,
factories, and private homes.
CREDENTIALISM. The tendency for jobs to require more and more formal education, even though the skill or knowledge requirements for the job have not changed.
CROSSTABULATION. A table illustrating the relationship between two variable,
such as Sex (Male and Female) and Years of Education.
CRIME. Any action that violates criminal laws established by political
authority.
CRISIS MEDICINE. Medical treatment that focuses on curing illness (as
opposed to preventing the occurrence of disease).
CRUDE BIRTH-RATE. A statistical measure representing the number of births per
thousand population within a given year.
CRUDE DEATH-RATE. A statistical measure representing the number of deaths per
thousand population that occur annually in a given population.
CULT. A fragmentary religious group which lacks permanent structure.
CULTURAL DIFFUSION. The transmission of cultural elements between sociocultural systems.
CULTURAL LAG. A dysfunction in the sociocultural system caused by change
occurring in one part of the system and the failure of another part of that
system to adjust to the change. An example would be married women engaged in
outside employment and the continuance of the domestic division of labor.
CULTURAL MATERIALISM. A macro-social theory that attempts to account for the similarities and differences between sociocultural systems by focusing on the environmental constraints to which human action is subject.
CULTURAL PLURALISM. The more or less peaceful
coexistence of multiple subcultures within a given society.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM. The idea that a culture item can be judged or understood only in relationship to the entire culture in which it is embedded.
CULTURAL SUPERSTRUCTURE. Sociocultural materialism term used to refer to
the shared symbolic universe within sociocultural systems. It includes
such components as the art, music, dance, rituals, sports, hobbies and the
accumulated knowledge base of the system (see also
MENTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE, and
SUPERSTRUCTURE ).
CULTURAL TRANSMISSION. The socialization process whereby the norms and
values of the group are internalized by individuals.
CULTURAL UNIVERSALS. Values or practices shared by all human cultures.
CULTURE. The values, norms and material goods shared by a given group.
Your instructor prefers to restrict the term to refer to symbolic aspects
(values and norms).
CULTURE OF POVERTY. The view that the poor have a different value system that
contribute to their poverty.
CULTURE SHOCK. The disorientation that may occur when one experiences a new and different culture or when one encounters rapid social change in one's own culture.
CURATIVE MEDICINE. Another term for Crisis Medicine--the focus on curing
disease rather than its prevention.
CUSTODIAL CARE. Occurs when the focus of health care is on the needs of
the institution (convenience, efficiency) rather than on the needs of the
patient.
DATA. Systematically measured information.
DATA ANALYSIS. The organization of data to look for patterns and uniformities.
DEFENSIVE MEDICINE. The use of widespread medical tests on the part of
physicians in order to avoid possible malpractice suits.
DEFORESTATION. The removal of all trees from an area (see also
DEPLETION,
ENVIRONMENT and
DESERTIFICATION).
DEDUCTION. The process of going from general theory to specific hypotheses.
DE FACTO SEGREGATION. The separation of social groups in fact, though not by law. Housing patterns in the U.S. often reflect de facto segregation.
DEFENSIVE MEDICINE. The practice of ordering unnecessary medical tests as a precaution against overlooking a condition and thus opening the physician up to a law suit.
DE JURE SEGREGATION. The separation of social groups by law.
DEINDUSTRIALIZATION. The loss of manufacturing capacity.
DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION. The movement of mental patients out of hospitals and
into the "community."
DEMOCRACY. A form of government that recognizes the citizen as having the right
to participate in political decision-making, or to elect representatives to
government bodies.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION. A stabilization of population level in industrial
society once a certain level of economic prosperity has been reached. Population
is thought to stabilize because of economic incentives on families to limit the
number of children.
DEMOGRAPHY. The scientific study of human population--including size,
growth, movement, density, and composition.
DENSITY. A measure of human crowding usually expressed as the number of
people per square mile.
DEPENDENCY THEORY. The thesis that many Third World countries cannot control
major aspects of their economic life because of the dominance of industrialized
societies.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE. The variable that you believe will be affected by another.
In the posited relationship between education and income, education is the
independent variable, income is the dependent variable. See also independent
variable.
DEPLETION. One of the primary constraints of the environment on
sociocultural systems. Refers to the limited supplies of natural resources
(although the limits are unknowable, that there are limits can be inferred).
These limits can often be stretched through the use of technology (see also
POLLUTION, and
INTENSIFICATION).
DESERTIFICATION. A fertile region that has been made barren by the
activities of human societies (see also
DEPLETION, and
POLLUTION).
DETERRENCE THEORY. The prevention of military conflict through the build up of
armaments. The basis of deterrence theory is in ensuring that a potential
aggressor would suffer too many losses to make the initiation of hostilities
worthwhile --M.A.D. or mutually assured destruction was based on this theory.
DEVIANCE. Behaviors which do not conform to significant norms held by most of
the members of a group or society. What is regarded as 'deviant' is highly
variable across societies.
DEVIANT SUBCULTURE. A subculture which has values and norms which differ
substantially from those of the majority in a society.
DIALECTICAL. An interpretation of change emphasizing the clash of opposing
interests and the resulting struggle as the engine of social transformation.
DICTATORSHIP. A form of government in which one person exercises supreme power and authority.
DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION. Theory of crime and delinquency that holds that
deviance is learned as a result of long-term interaction with others.
DIFFERENTIATION. The development of increasing complexity and division of labor
within sociocultural systems.
DIFFUSION. The spread of cultural traits from one sociocultural system to
another.
DISCRIMINATION. The denial of equal access to social resources to people on the
basis of their group membership.
DIVISION OF LABOR. The specialization of work tasks or occupations. All
societies have some division of labor based on age and sex. But with the
development of industrialism the division of labor becomes far more complex
which affects many parts of the sociocultural system.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE. Violent behavior directed by one member of a household
against another.
DOMINANT CULTURE. The beliefs and values of the dominant group within a sociocultural system.
DOUBLE STANDARD. A code of behavior that is more restrictive on women than
on men.
DOUBLING TIME. The time it takes for a particular level of population to double
in size. A fairly accurate doubling time estimate can be computed by
taking the annual growth rate and dividing it by 70. At 2% annual growth
world population (5.5 billion in 1996) will double in size (to 11 billion) in
about 35 years (2031) assuming the annual growth stays constant (see also
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH).
DRAMATURGICAL MODEL. A sociological perspective that sees the social world as a
stage, with all the men and women playing to their roles in the social order.
DUAL CAREER FAMILY. Families in which both spouses are in the outside labor
force.
DUAL WELFARE SYSTEM. Refers to disguised forms of welfare that go to the
middle class and the rich (also called Wealthfare).
DYSFUNCTION. Refers to an institution's negative impact (or harmful
effect) on the sociocultural system.
ECOLOGY. The study of the system of relationships between organisms and
their environment.
ECONOMY. The organization of production and distribution of goods and services
within a sociocultural system.
ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE. Comte and Durkheim both refer to the fact that in
societies with a high division of labor individuals depend more on others to
produce most of the goods they need to sustain their lives.
ECOSYSTEM. A self-sustaining community of plants and animals within a
natural environment.
EDUCATION. The transmission of knowledge to members of society. The knowledge
passed on is in the form of technical and cultural knowledge, technical and
social skills, as well as the norms and values of the society.
EDUCATION SYSTEM. The system of formalized transmission of knowledge and values
operating within a given society.
EDUCATIONAL DEFLATION. The devaluing of education as a result of the forces of supply and demand.
EGALITARIAN FAMILY. Family arrangement in which power is shared
more-or-less equally by both the wife and the husband.
EGO. Freud's posited part of the self that represents reason and common sense.
EGOISTIC SUICIDE. Durkheim's concept for suicide performed by an individual who has not sufficiently integrated into the social order.
ELDERLY ABUSE. Acts of violence (or neglect) directed at the elderly (often by
family members).
EMIGRATION. The movement of people out of their native land to other
countries.
ENDOGAMY. A system in which an individual may only marry within the same social
category or group.
ENTREPRENEUR. A person who organizes and manages a business firm.
EMPIRICAL. Social data or facts that are based on systematic observation or
measurement.
ENLIGHTENMENT. Seventeenth and eighteenth century European thought that placed
great faith in science and human reason in dealing with social issues.
ENTROPY. The entropy law or the second law of thermodynamics--energy can
only be transformed in one direction, from ordered to disordered. Entropy
is also another name for pollution.
ENVIRONMENT. The physical, biological and chemical restraints to which
action is subject.
ENVIRONMENTALISM. Refers to a concern with preserving the physical environment
in the face of the impact of industrialism.
EPIDEMOLOGY. The study of social, biological, and psychological factors associated with disease and health.
ESTATE SYSTEM. A form of stratification established by law in which the ownership of land leads to the monopolization of power.
ETHNIC GROUP. A group of common cultural identity, separating them from other groups around them.
ETHNICITY. One's ethnic group.
ETHNOCENTRISM. The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards one's own culture; often with the feeling that one's own culture is superior.
EUTHANASIA. The act of killing a person who is terminally ill (active euthanasia) or allowing such a person to die by withholding treatment (passive euthanasia). Usually the act is claimed to be an act of mercy.
EUTROPHICATION. Oxygen depletion of water due to over-fertilization.
EVALUATION RESEARCH. Social research whose aim is to assess the effectiveness of
a particular policy or social program.
EVOLUTION. The change of biological organisms by means of the adaptation to the
demands of the physical environment. Organisms that successfully adapt pass on
their genes to future generations thereby changing the species itself.
EXOGAMY. A system in which an individual may only marry outside their social
category or group.
EXPERIMENT. A research method in which variables can be analyzed under
carefully controlled conditions--usually within an artificial situation
constructed by the researcher.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH. A geometric rate of progression which has the potential of
producing a very fast rise (or an "explosion") in the numbers of a population
experiencing such growth (see also
DOUBLING TIME).
EXTENDED FAMILY. A family group consisting of more than two generations of the
same kinship line living either within the same household or, more usually in
the West, very close to one another.
FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS. Marxian concept that refers to the ideology of the subordinate class which has been largely fashioned by the ideology and control of the elites within a society.
FAMILY. A group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage or
adoption. Members of families form an economic unit, the adult members of which
are responsible for the upbringing of children. All societies involve some form
of family, although the form the family takes is widely variable. In modern
industrial societies the main family form is the nuclear family, although a
variety of extended family relationships are also found.
FAMILY OF ORIENTATION. The family into which an individual is born.
FAMILY OF PROCREATION. The family we create through marriage.
FECUNDITY. The number of children which is biologically possible for a woman to
produce.
FEEDBACK LOOP. Sociocultural materialism term referring to the dynamic
relationships between the different components of sociocultural systems.
While the theory begins with an examination of infrastructural determinism, it
recognizes that structure and superstructure can play an independent role in
determining the character of the system (see also
INFRASTRUCTURAL DETERMINISM).
FEE-FOR-SERVICE MEDICINE. The provision of medical services in return for
a monetary fee.
FEMININITY. The characteristic behaviors expected of women in a given culture.
FEMINISM. Advocacy of the social equality of the sexes.
FERTILITY. The average number of liveborn children produced by women of
childbearing age in a particular society.
FETISHISM. Obsessive attachment or sexual desire directed toward an
object.
FIELD RESEARCH. Research that involves the investigator directly with the people
or groups being studied.
FIRST WORLD. A term now rarely used that refers to the group of nation-states
that possess advanced industrial economies, usually market based (see also
SECOND WORLD and
THIRD WORLD)
FLEXTIME. An arrangement that allows employees to set their own schedules
(starting and quitting time) whenever possible.
FOLKWAYS. Widespread standards of behavior.
FORDISM. The assembly line system of production pioneered by Henry Ford.
It should be pointed out that not all industrial processes are based on the
assembly line.
FORMAL ORGANIZATION. Another name for secondary organization, usually large and consisting of people who interact on the basis of status and role.
FUNCTIONS. The ways in which a sociocultural trait contributes toward the
maintenance or adaptation of the entire sociocultural system.
FUNCTIONALISM. A theoretical perspective that focuses on the way various parts
of the social system contribute to the continuity of society as well as the
affect the various parts have on one another.
FUNDAMENTALISM. A commitment to, and a belief in, the literal meanings of
scriptural texts.
FUTURISTS. Those who attempt to forecast the broad parameters of social
life usually from the study of present day trends.
GANG. An informal group of individuals that engage in common activities, many of these activities may be outside the law.
GAME STAGE. Childhood stage in which children become capable of taking on the roles of others.
GEMEINSCHAFT According to Toennies, social organization based on
close and personal ties and traditional norms and values.
GENDER. Socially defined behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of
each sex.
GENETIC ENGINEERING. The genetic manipulation of organisms in an effort to
produce desirable characteristics.
GENOCIDE. The systematic, planned annihilation of an ethnic, racial or political
group.
GENERALIZATION. A claim that a specific observation will apply to a broader
population. See also inductive reasoning.
GENTRIFICATION. The renovation of poor and working class urban neighborhoods and
the displacement of the original residents.
GESELLSCHAFT. According to Toennies, social organization based on loose
personal ties, self interest, rationalization, and impersonality.
GHETTO A section of a city occupied predominantly by members of a single
racial or ethnic group, usually because of social or economic pressure.
GOVERNMENT. Formal institutional structures of the nation-state that attempt to regulate internal and external relations.
GLASS CEILING. The unspoken/unwritten limit that a woman (or a member of a minority group) may attain within an organization.
GLOBALIZATION. The development of extensive worldwide patterns of economic
relationships between nations.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT. The accumulation of gasses in the atmosphere that act
like the glass roof of a greenhouse, letting sunlight in but trapping the
radiant heat.
GREEN REVOLUTION. The tremendous increase in farming productivity that
occurred beginning in the 1950s with the application of pesticides, herbicides,
chemical fertilizers and the development of plant varieties especially bred to
respond to these chemical inputs.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP). The total value of all goods and services produced
within the boundaries of a particular country in any given year. In America, for
example, this measure includes the value of the production of Japanese firms
within the U.S. but not goods produced by U.S. firms on Japanese soil. GDP
is now the preferred measure of the wealth of nations.
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP). The total value of all goods and services produced
by nationals of a particular country in any given year. In America, for example,
this measure did not include the value of the production of Japanese firms
within the U.S. but did include the value of goods and services produced by U.S.
firms on Japanese soil. GDP is now the preferred measure of the wealth of
nations, though GNP is often used in historical comparison.
GROUP. A collection of individuals who communicate and interact on a regular basis, sharing many attitudes and beliefs.
GROUPTHINK. The tendency for groups to reach consensus on most issues brought before it.
GUERRILLA MOVEMENT. A non-government military organization that engages in
fighting or harassment.
HATE CRIME. Assault or other violent acts aimed at individuals because they are a member of a deviant or a minority group.
HEALTH MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATIONS (HMOs). An organization that provides health
care to patients in return for a fixed annual fee. HMOs therefore have an
interest in limiting the cost of treatment per patient (see also
MANAGED CARE).
HETEROSEXUALITY. An orientation in sexual activity towards people of the opposite sex.
HIDDEN CURRICULUM. Behavior or attitudes that are learned at school but which
are not a part of the formal curriculum. For example, aspects of classism can
often be "unintentionally" conveyed in learning materials.
HIGHER EDUCATION. Usually refers to education beyond high school level, often in
colleges or universities.
HIGH-TRUST SYSTEMS. Work settings in which individuals have a great deal of
autonomy and control.
HISTORICAL MATERIALISM. Marx's interpretation that processes of social change are determined primarily (but not exclusively) by economic factors.
HOLISTIC MEDICINE. Medical treatment aimed at the whole person--physical, mental, and the social environment
HOMOPHOBIA. Fear, hatred or loathing of homosexuals.
HOMOSEXUALITY. Having sexual preference for persons of the same sex.
HOUSEWORK (DOMESTIC LABOR). Unpaid work carried on in and around the home such
as cooking, cleaning and shopping. Studies show that the bulk of this labor is
carried out by women despite the predominance of dual-income families.
HOSPICE. Caring for the terminally ill within the home.
HUMAN ECOLOGY. The study of human and environmental relationships.
HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES. Societies whose subsistence is based primarily
on hunting animals and gathering edible plants.
HYPOTHESIS. A tentative statement about a given state of affairs that predicts a
relationship between the variables, usually put forward as a basis for empirical
testing.
IATROGENIC. Disease caused by the physician in the course of treating the
patient.
IDEAL TYPE. Weber's construct of a 'pure type', constructed by emphasizing
logical or consistent traits of a given social item. The traits are
defining ones, not necessarily desirable ones. Ideal types do not exist anywhere
in reality, rather they are "measures" that we can use in comparing social
phenomena. One example is Weber's ideal type of bureaucratic organization (which
are anything but desirable). More widely used (and understood) examples would
include "ideal democracy" and "ideal capitalism."
IDEOLOGY. Shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify and support the
interests of a particular group or organizations.
IMMIGRATION The settlement of people into a country in which they were not
born.
IMPERIALISM. The establishing of colonial empires in which domination is both
political and economic.
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT. Selective control of how other's perceive us.
INCOME. Payment of wages usually earned from work or investments.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. The variable that you believe affects another. In
the posited relationship between education and income, education is the
independent variable, income is the dependent variable. See also dependent
variable.
INDUCTIVE REASONING. The process of going from a specific observations to
general statements.
INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY. Democratic participation in the workplace.
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION. Economic production carried on through the use of
machinery driven by inanimate sources of power.
INDUSTRIALIZATION The continual expanding application of sophisticated
technology designed to efficiently draw energy and raw materials out of the
environment and fashion them for human use.
INDUSTRIALIZATION OF WAR. The application of industrial production and
bureaucratic organization to warfare.
INFANT MORTALITY RATE. The number of infants who die during the first year of
life, per thousand live births. Infant mortality rates have declined
dramatically in industrial societies.
INFORMAL RELATIONS. Relations in organizations developed on the basis of
personal connections. These ties are often used to pursue organizational goals
instead of the formally recognized procedures.
INFRASTRUCTURAL DETERMINISM. The major principle of sociocultural
materialism (borrowed and modified from Harris' cultural materialism).
"The mode of production and reproduction (probabalistically) determines primary
and secondary group structure, which in turn determines the cultural and mental
superstructure" (see also
MODE OF PRODUCTION,
MODE OF REPRODUCTION,
PRIMARY GROUP,
SECONDARY GROUP,
SUPERSTRUCTURE,
and
FEEDBACK LOOP).
INFRASTRUCTURE. The interface between a sociocultural system and its
environment. In sociocultural materialism it contains the principle
mechanism by which society regulates the amount and type of energy from the
environment (see also
MODE OF PRODUCTION,
and
MODE OF REPRODUCTION).
IN-GROUP. A social group an individual belongs to and identifies with.
INNER CITY. The areas composing the central neighborhoods of industrial cities
which are subject to dilapidation and decay, the more affluent residents having
moved to outlying areas.
INSTINCT. A genetically fixed pattern of complex behavior (that is, beyond
reflex) which appears in all normal animals within a given species. The
behavior of humans is not instinctual.
INSTITUTION. An established pattern of human social behavior in a given
society--such as marriage, family, or government.
INSTITUTIONAL CAPITALISM. A condition that exists when large institutions such
as pension plans, banks, and insurance companies hold large shares of
capitalistic enterprises.
INSTITUTIONAL DISCRIMINATION. Accepted social arrangements that place
minority groups at a disadvantage.
INSTITUTIONAL RACISM. Accepted social arrangements that exclude on the basis of
race.
INSURRECTION An organized revolt against civil authority in an attempt to
replace that authority with another.
INTENSIFICATION. The application of ever greater amounts of technology and labor
techniques to increase productivity. Refers to the growth in the complexity of
the mode of production (greater energy expenditures as well as energy
produced/consumed), and population over the course of social evolution (see also
BUREAUCRATIZATION,
and
RATIONALIZATION).
INTELLIGENCE. Level of intellectual ability in an individual. Also refers
to the gathering of information (defensive, offensive, and industrial
capabilities) about one nation by another.
INTERNAL COLONIALISM. The economic exploitation of a group within a
society whereby their labor is sold cheap and they are made to pay dear for
products and services.
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR. The specialization of work tasks and occupations among nation states.
INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE. The use of force between individuals to kill, injure, or
abuse.
INTEREST GROUPS. Groups organized to pursue specific interests in the political
arena. The interests of these groups is often economic, but many are organized
around moral concerns. The major activity of interest groups is lobbying the
members of legislative bodies (Congress as well as state legislators),
contributing vast sums to political campaigns, and increasingly running their
own propaganda campaigns to affect the legislative process.
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR. The interdependence of countries which trade on
global markets.
INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY. Movement up or down the social hierarchy from one
generation to another.
IQ (INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT). A score attained on tests of symbolic or reasoning
abilities. Most social scientists (excluding psychologists) do not put much
stock in the validity of IQ tests.
J
JOB DISPLACEMENT. The permanent loss of jobs due to shifts in employment patterns. With the transition from agrarian to industrial societies, many agricultural jobs were lost, while new manufacturing and service jobs were created. The shifts continue.
KINSHIP. The network of social relationships which link individuals through
common ancestry, marriage, or adoption.
LABELING THEORY. A social theory that holds that society's reaction to
certain behaviors is a major factor in defining the self as deviant.
People become `deviant' because certain labels (thief, prostitute, homosexual)
are attached to their behavior by criminal justice authorities and others. The
resulting treatment of the individual pushes them into performing the deviant
role. Also called "societal reaction" theory.
LAISSEZ-FAIRE. One of the main doctrines of capitalism that asserts that
government should not interfere with commerce.
LANGUAGE. Symbols and grammatical rules that provide for the communication of complex ideas.
LATENT FUNCTIONS. The unintended consequences of one part of a sociocultural
system. For example, the reform of big city political machines had a lot of
unintended consequences on the governability of American cities (see also
MANIFEST FUNCTION).
LAW. A written rule established by a political authority and backed by
government.
LEGITIMACY. The generally held belief that a particular social institution is
just and valid.
LEGITIMATION CRISIS. The lack of sufficient commitment on the part of members to
a particular social institution for that organization to function effectively.
Governments that lack legitimation often rely on repression to continue their
rule (which is very inefficient). Legitimation crisis in other
institutions produce parallel responses on the part of administration.
LESBIANISM. Sexual activities and emotional attachments between women.
LIBERAL DEMOCRACY. Refers to those societies based on some form of democracy
coupled with capitalism.
LIFE CHANCES. The opportunities that are available to individuals as a result of their position in the class system.
LIFE EXPECTANCY. The number of years a newborn in a particular society can
expect to live. Also refers to the number of further years which people at any
given age can, on average, expect to live.
LIFESTYLE CHANGES. Often called for when treating chronic disease.
Rather than curing the disease, the patient makes changes in lifestyle
(nutrition, exercise, smoking sessation, weight reduction, alleviating stress)
that help to control the disease process.
LIFE-SPAN. The maximum length of life that is biologically possible for a member
of a given species.
LIMITED WAR. Warfare fought principally by a relatively small number of soldiers
to reach specific and politically limited objectives (see also
TOTAL WAR).
LITERACY. The ability of individuals to read and write.
LOCAL KNOWLEDGE. Knowledge of a local community possessed by individuals who
spend long periods of their lives in them.
LONGEVITY. A long duration of life. Or, a long tenure in an
organization.
LOOKING GLASS SELF. The theory that an individual's self-concept is derived from their interactions with others, that is, their perception of how others perceive them.
LOW-TRUST SYSTEMS. Work settings in which individuals have little autonomy and
control.
LUDDITES. A term used to brand those who are against "all" modern technology.
The term originally referred to British workmen (about 1811) who rioted
and destroyed textile machinery in the belief that these machines were
contributing to unemployment.
MACROSOCIOLOGY. The study of large-scale organizations, sociocultural systems,
or the world system of societies.
MAGIC. Rituals which attempt to influence supernatural beings to help achieve
human ends.
MALE INEXPRESSIVENESS. The difficulties men have in talking about their feelings
to others.
MALTHUSIAN THEORY. The principle that population tends to grow faster than
subsistence. T. Robert Malthus's theory of population dynamics, according to which
population increase inevitably comes up against the 'natural limits' of food
supply. Population grows geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, 16,. . .) while food supply
grows arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .). The debate rages on, there
are neo-malthusians and anti-malthusians among us today!
MANAGED CARE. The reorganization of the health care delivery along corporate
lines (see also
HEALTH MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATIONS).
MANAGERIAL CAPITALISM. A change in the control of capitalist enterprises from
owners (which predominated in Marx's day) to control by (very well) salaried
managers.
MANIFEST FUNCTION. The intended and known consequences of one part of a
sociocultural system. For example, the reform of big city political machines had
the intended consequence of limiting (relatively) corruption by city officials
(see also
LATENT FUNCTION).
MARKET RESEARCH. Social research aimed specifically at finding out the sales
potential of a product or service.
MARRIAGE. A socially approved sexual and economic relationship between two or
more individuals.
MARXISM. Contemporary social theory deriving its main elements from Marx's
ideas. Marxist theory strongly emphasizes class struggle and material causation.
MASCULINITY. The characteristic forms of behavior expected of men in any given
culture.
MASS MEDIA. Forms of communication designed to reach a vast audience without any
personal contact between the senders and receivers. Examples would include
newspapers, magazines, video recordings, radio and television
MASTER STATUS. A position that is so central to the identity of the
individual that it overshadows all other statuses.
MATERIALISM. The view that 'material conditions' (usually economic and
technological factors) have the central role in determining social change.
MATRIARCHY. Social organization in which females dominate males.
MATRILINEAL DESCENT. The tracing of kinship through only the female line (see
also
PATRILINEAL DESCENT).
MATRILOCALITY. A family residential pattern in which the husband is expected to
live near to the wife's parents (see also
NEOLOCALITY).
MEAN. A statistical measure of 'central tendency' or average based on dividing a
total by the number of individual cases involved. The mean is very sensitive to
extreme scores. For example, the average life expectancy for people in a society
with high infant mortality would be a misleading measure (see also
MEDIAN).
MEANS OF PRODUCTION. Marx's term referring to the means whereby the
production of material goods is carried on in a society. Marx included in this
concept both technology (which he called the "forces of production) and the social relations among the producers (which
he called the "relations of production" and based on
the ownership of that technology).
MECHANIZATION. The use of machinery to replace human labor.
MEDIAN. The number that falls halfway in a range of numbers--the score below
which are half the scores and above which are the other half. The median
is a way of calculating 'central tendency' which is sometimes more useful than
calculating a mean (particularly when many extreme scores are in the
distribution).
MEDICAID. Government program (federal and state) to provide medical care
to the poor.
MEDICAL MODEL. The application of the medical perspective in explaining
and treating troublesome human behavior.
MEDICARE. Government health insurance for those over sixty-five.
MEGALOPOLIS. A vast unbroken urban region consisting of two or more central
cities connected by their surrounding suburbs.
MENTAL DISORDER. The inability to psychologically cope effectively with the
demands of day-to-day life. Psychiatrists recognize two general types of mental
disorder, neurosis (milder forms of illness, such as anxiety states) and
psychosis (more serious forms of disturbance, in which individuals lose touch
with reality). The organic and sociocultural basis of various mental disorders
are disputed matters.
MENTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE. Sociocultural materialism term used to refer to
conscious and unconscious motives for human behavior. Borrowed from Max
Weber, there are four basic motivations for human behavior: wertrational
(or value oriented rationality), affective action (action motivated by
emotions), traditional action (action motivated by what Weber calls the "eternal
yesterday"), and zweckrational (goal oriented rational action). (See also
SUPERSTRUCTURE,
and
CULTURAL SUPERSTRUCTURE).
MICROSOCIOLOGY. The study of small scale patterns of human interaction and
behavior within specific settings.
MIDDLE CLASS. A social class broadly defined occupationally as those working in
white-collar and lower managerial occupations; is sometimes defined by reference
to income levels or subjective identification of the participants in the study.
MIGRATION. The movement of people from one country or region to another in
order to settle permanently.
MILITARY RULE. Government by military leaders.
MILLENARIANISM. Beliefs held by the members of some religious movements that
cataclysmic changes will occur in the near future (often centered around the
year 2000 and the second coming of Christ) heralding the arrival of a new epoch
in human affairs.
MINORITY GROUP (OR ETHNIC MINORITY). A group of people who are defined on the
basis of their ethnicity or race. Because of their distinct physical or
cultural characteristics, they are singled out for unequal treatment within a
society.
MIXED ECONOMY. Economies which have major elements of both capitalism and
socialism (such as many economies of Europe).
MODE. The value that appears most often in a given set of data. This can
sometimes be a helpful way of portraying central tendency (see also
MEDIAN,
and
MEAN).
MODE OF PRODUCTION. The technology and the practices employed for
expanding or limiting basic subsistence production, especially the production of
food and other forms of energy. Examples would include the technology of
subsistence, technological/environmental relationships, and work patterns (see
also
MODE OF REPRODUCTION,
and
INFRASTRUCTURE).
MODE OF REPRODUCTION. The technology and
practices employed for expanding, limiting, and maintaining population size.
Examples of variables included are demography, mating patterns, fertility,
natality, mortality, nurturance of infants, contraception, abortion and
infanticide (see also
MODE OF PRODUCTION,
and
INFRASTRUCTURE).
MODERNIZATION. The process of general social change brought about by the
transition from an agrarian to an industrial mode of production.
MONOGAMY. A form of marriage that joins one male and one female at any given
time.
MONOPOLY. A situation in which a single producer dominates in a given industry
or market (see also
OLIGOPOLY).
MONOTHEISM. Belief in a single Devine power.
MORES. Norms that have strong moral significance, violation of which cause
strong social reaction (murder, sexual molestation of children).
MORTALITY RATE. The number of deaths that occur in a particular
population in a specified period of time (usually a year).
MULTICULTURALISM. A sensitivity to the diverse cultural backgrounds and experiences of the members within a society.
MULTILINEAR EVOLUTION. An interpretation of social evolution that not all
societies pass through predetermined stages of evolutionary development--there
are varying paths of evolutionary change followed by different societies.
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS. A business corporation that operates in two or more
countries--also sometimes referred to as a "transnational."
NATIONALISM. An individual's internalization of the set of beliefs and values
expressing love, pride and identification with a given nation state. Ritual and
symbols are important tools in fostering nationalism among the citizenry.
NATION-STATE. The modern state in which a government has sovereign power within
a defined territorial area, and the mass of the population are citizens.
NEO-COLONIALISM. The informal dominance of some nations over others by means of
unequal conditions of economic exchange (as between industrial and Third World
countries)..
NEO-LOCALITY. A family residential pattern in which the married couple
lives apart from the place of residence of both the bride's and the husband's
parents (see also
MATRILOCALITY).
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES. Nation-states (such as South Korea) that have recently attained industrialization.
NONMATERIAL CULTURE. Consists of the norms, customs, beliefs, and ideologies of social groups.
NON-STATE ACTORS. International agencies, such as the U.N. or the World Health
Organization, which play a part in the world system.
NORMS. Rules and expectations of conduct which either prescribes a given type of
behavior, or forbids it.
NUCLEAR FAMILY. A basic family group consisting of married female and male
parents and dependent children, living away from other relatives.
OBJECTIVITY. Objectivity means striving as far as possible to reduce or
eliminate bias in the conduct of research.
OLIGARCHY. Rule by a few within an organization or in the society as a whole.
OLIGOPOLY. A situation in which a small number of firms dominate a given
industry or market. When four or fewer firms supply fifty percent or more of a
given market the effects of oligopoly become apparent. These effects are reputed
to be a rise in price and a lowering of quality because of the decline of
competition (see also
MONOPOLY)
OPEN LINEAGE FAMILY. A family system found in preindustrial Europe in which
family relationships are closely intertwined with the local community.
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY. Durkheim's concept referring to social cohesion based on the interdependence of the division of labor rather than on likeness.
ORGANIZATION. A large group of individuals that is formally organized for the
purpose of attaining a goal.
ORGANIZED CRIME. Criminal activities carried out by organizations established as
businesses.
OZONE DEPLETION. Theory that societies production of chloroflourocarbons
and other gasses is depleting the ozone layer that protects plant and animal
life from harmful ultra-violet radiation (see also
POLLUTION,
and
ENVIRONMENT).
PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY. A system of democracy in which all members of a group
or community participate collectively in major decisions. Most nation states
today are to large and complex for participatory democracy to be a feasible form
of government.
PASTORAL SOCIETIES. Societies whose subsistence is based on domesticated animals
(see also
TRADITIONAL STATES).
PATIENT DUMPING. The practice of only treating patients that can pay
leaving the poor to government or charitable organizations.
PATRIARCHY. Social organization that structures the dominance of men over women.
PATRILINEAL DESCENT. The practice of tracing kinship only through the male line (see also MATRILINEAL DESCENT).
PATRILOCALITY. A family residential pattern in which the wife is expected to
live near to the husband's parents (see also
NEOLOCALITY).
PEASANTS. People in agrarian societies who produce food from the land, using
traditional farming methods of plow and animal power. Farm workers in
agrarian societies.
PEER GROUP. A friendship group with common interests and position composed of
individuals of similar age.
PERIPHERY COUNTRIES. The term refers to countries which have a marginal role in
the world economy and are dependent on core countries in their trading
relationships (see also
CORE COUNTRIES
and
SEMI-PERIPHERY COUNTRIES).
PERSONAL CRIME. Crime directed against people.
PHYSICIAN ASSISTANT. A new occupation that handles many routine medical
problems, thereby allowing the physician to specialize in the more difficult
cases.
PLAY STAGE. The stage in which children take on the role of others around them.
PLEA BARGAINING. A deal between the prosecution and the accused offender
where the accused will plead guilty in return for a reduced charge.
PLURALIST THEORY. An analysis of politics emphasizing the role of diverse and
competing interest groups in preventing too much power being accumulated in the
hands of political and economic elites.
POLICY RESEARCH. Social research aimed at clarifying issues and problems that
can then be addressed by changes in social policy.
POLITICS. Attempts to influence governmental activities.
POLITICAL PARTY. An organization of people with similar interests and attitudes
established with the aim of achieving legitimate control of government and using
that power to pursue a specific program.
POLLUTION. One of the principal constraints of the environment.
Refers to the contamination of soil, water, or air by noxious substances (see
also
DEPLETION,
ENVIRONMENT,
and
INTENSIFICATION).
POLYANDRY. A form of marriage in which a woman may have more than one husband.
POLYGAMY. A form of marriage in which a person may have more than one spouse.
POLYGYNY. A form of marriage in which a man may have more than one wife.
POLYTHEISM. A form of belief in which a person has two or more gods.
POPULAR CULTURE. Cultural elements (beliefs, norms, material objects) that are part of the everyday life of a people.
POPULATION. In social research this term refers to the total group of people
that the researcher is studying. For very large groups, sampling is usually
undertaken.
POSITIVISM. A philosophical position according to which there are close ties
between the social and natural sciences, which share a common logical framework.
Accurate observation and measurement are considered critical in this
perspective.
POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETY. A society based on the production of services and
information rather than material goods. A notion advocated by those who
believe that the industrial order is passing.
POSTMODERNISM. A perspective--widespread in cultural studies and
anthropology--that is based on the idea that there is no objective social
reality, but that different realities are constructed in the minds of
individuals from the words and images (or discourse) between people.
POWER. The ability to achieve aims or further the interests you hold even when
opposed by others.
POWER ELITE. According to C. Wright Mills the power elite are men in the highest positions of government, corporations and the military who hold enormous power in modern industrial societies.
PREJUDICE. The holding of unfounded ideas about a group, ideas that are
resistant to change.
PRESTIGE. Social respect accorded to an individual or group because of the
status of their position.
PRIMARY DEVIANCE. The deviant act itself, the violation of a norm.
PRIMARY GROUP. A typically small group of individuals standing in an enduring
personal relationship to one another--examples would include parents, spouse, or
close friends (see also
SECONDARY GROUP).
PRIMARY GROUP STRUCTURE. A term used in sociocultural materialism to refer
to structural groups in which members tend to interact on an intimate basis.
They perform many functions such as regulating production, reproduction,
socialization, education, and enforcing social discipline. Examples
include family, community, voluntary organizations, and friendship networks (see
also
STRUCTURE, and
SECONDARY GROUP STRUCTURE).
PRIMARY LABOR MARKET. The term refers to the economic
position of individuals engaged in occupations that provide secure jobs, and
good benefits and working conditions (see also
SECONDARY LABOR MARKET).
PRIMARY SECTOR. That part of a modern economy based on the extraction of natural
resources directly from the natural environment--includes such areas as mining
and agricultural production.
PRIVATE HEALTH CARE. Fee-for-service health care available only to those who pay
the full cost of them.
PROFANE. Elements which belong to the ordinary everyday world rather than the
supernatural (see also
SACRED).
PROFESSIONS. Occupations requiring extensive educational qualifications, with
high social prestige, subject to codes of conduct laid down by central bodies
(or professional associations).
PROSTITUTION. Having sex for economic gain.
PSYCHOPATH. A personality type that denotes a lack of moral sense and concern
for others.
PSYCHOSIS. A serious mental disorder that involves a failure to distinguish
between internal and external reality, the affected person cannot function
effectively in social life.
PUBLIC HEALTH CARE. Government funded health-care services available to all
members of the population.
Q
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. Less structured research more open to indirect observation
and interpretation. There are many qualitative techniques such as participant
observation, content analysis, or focus groups.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH. Structured research focused upon the collection of
discreet data and systematic analsyses.
RACE. A socially defined category of people who share genetically transmitted
physical characteristics.
RACISM. The attributing of characteristics of inferiority to a particular racial
category. Racism is a specific form of prejudice focused on race.
RANDOM SAMPLE. A technique of drawing a sample of a population in which each
individual has an equal chance of being selected.
RAPE. The use of force to compel one individual to engage in a sexual act with
another.
RATIONALIZATION. Weber's concept to refer to the process by which modes of
precise calculation based on observation and reason increasingly dominate the
social world. Rationalization is a habit of thought that replaces tradition,
emotion, and values as motivators of human conduct. Bureaucracy is a particular
case of rationalization applied to human social organization (see also
BUREAUCRATIZATION).
REBELLION. Rebellions are aimed at removing particular rulers or regimes rather
than bringing about significant structural changes in a society (See also
COUP D'ETAT
and
REVOLUTION).
RECIDIVISM RATE. The percentage of ex-convicts who are convicted of new offenses
after being released from prison.
RECIPROCITY. A system of the exchange of goods based on social ties.
REFORM MOVEMENT. A social movement concerned to implement a limited program of
social change, say changing the health care system to provide universal access
to care.
RELATIVE DEPRIVATION. A perceived disadvantage in social or economic standing
based on a comparison to others in a society.
RELATIVE POVERTY. Poverty defined by reference to the living standards of the
majority in any given society.
RELIABILITY. The likelihood or probability that a given measure would be the
same if measured again. Not all measures are reliable.
RELIGION. A set of beliefs involving symbols regarded as sacred, together with
ritual practices in which members of the community engage.
REPLICATION. Repeating a study on another sample of subjects at a different
time. Such studies are checks on the validity and reliability of research.
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY. Based on the existence of two or more political
parties, in which voters democratically elect politicians to represent their
interests.
RESEARCH DESIGN. The overall logic and strategy of the research methods of a
particular study.
RESEARCH METHODS. The diverse strategies used to gather empirical (factual)
material in a systematic way.
RESOCIALIZATION. The relearning of cultural norms and values by mature
individuals usually in the context of a total institution (see also
TOTAL INSTITUTION).
RETIREMENT CENTER. A city or town to which many people move when they retire.
REVOLUTION. A process of change involving the mobilizing of a mass social
movement in order to radically transform the society (see also
COUP D'ETAT
and
REBELLION).
RIOTS. An outbreak of collective violence directed against persons, property or
both.
RITES OF PASSAGE. Communal rituals that mark the transition from one status to
another (such as a confirmation or a wedding ceremony).
RITUAL. Formalized ceremonial behavior in which the members of a group or community regularly engage.
ROLE. The expected behavior associated with
a given status.
ROLE MODEL. An admired person who is held up as an example to imitate.
ROLE STRAIN. Conflicting expectations within a given role.
SACRED. Something set apart from the everyday world which inspires attitudes of
awe or reverence among believers (see also
PROFANE).
SAMPLING. Taking a small part of a population for purposes of drawing
inferences from the analysis of the sample characteristics to the population as
a whole.
SANCTION. A reward for conformity or a punishment for nonconformity that
reinforces socially approved forms of behavior.
SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS. The conjecture that people perceive their world
through the framework of language.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD. Steps taken in the research process to assure the validity,
reliability, and generalizability of the results. These steps include
observation (or gathering the data), hypothesis testing, and the analysis of
data.
SCAPEGOATING. Blaming, punishing, or stigmatizing a relatively powerless
individual or group for wrongs that were not of their doing.
SCHIZOPHRENIA. A serious mental disturbance in which an individual typically has
delusions or hallucinations and a distorted sense of reality.
SCIENCE. The application of systematic methods of observation and careful
logical analysis; the term also refers to the body of knowledge produced by the
use of the scientific method.
SECOND WORLD COUNTRIES. Formerly communist industrial societies of Eastern Europe and the
Soviet Union (see also
FIRST WORLD
and
THIRD WORLD).
SECONDARY GROUP. A group of individuals who do not know each other on a personal
level interacting in pursuit of a goal (see also
PRIMARY GROUP).
SECONDARY GROUP STRUCTURE. A term used in sociocultural materialism to
refer to structural groups in which members tend to interact without any
emotional commitment to one another. These organizations are coordinated
through bureaucracies. They perform many functions such as regulating
production, reproduction, socialization, education, and enforcing social
discipline. Examples include governments, parties, military, corporations,
educational institutions, media, service and welfare organizations, and
professional and labor organizations (see also
STRUCTURE,
and
PRIMARY GROUP STRUCTURE).
SECONDARY DEVIANCE. The deviant role behavior that a person adopts as a
result of being labeled as deviant.
SECONDARY LABOR MARKET. Refers to the economic position of individuals engaged
in occupations that provide insecure jobs, poor benefits and conditions of work
(see also
PRIMARY LABOR MARKET).
SECULAR. Beliefs that are temporal rather than spiritual in nature.
SECULARIZATION. A process of decline in the social influence of religion (see
also
RATIONALIZATION).
SEGREGATION. The separation of people based on ethnicity or race.
SELF (or SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS). The individual's awareness of being a distinct
social identity, a person separate from others. Human beings are not born with
self-consciousness, but acquire an awareness of self as a result of early
socialization.
SEMI-PERIPHERY COUNTRIES. Countries that are in the initial stages of
industrialism which provide labor and raw materials to the core countries (see
also
CORE COUNTRIES,
and
PERIPHERY COUNTRIES).
SERIAL MONOGAMY. The process of contracting several marriages in succession--
marriage, divorce, and remarriage.
SEX. The biological categories of females and males.
SEX ROLE. The gender specific role behavior that a person learns as a
member of a particular society.
SEX STRATIFICATION. The ranking and differential reward system of the sexes.
SEXISM. Beliefs which hold one sex superior to the other thereby justifying
sexual inequalities.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT. The making of persistent unwanted sexual advances (physical
or verbal) by one
individual towards another that occurs within a relationship where the
individuals have unequal power (such as an employer/employee).
SEXUAL REVOLUTION. The widespread change in sexual behavior and attitudes among men and women in 20th century America.
SICK ROLE. Patterns of behavior expected of one who is sick--this role
often exempts the person from their normal role obligations.
SIGNIFICANT OTHERS. People to whom the individual has a close relationship.
SOCIAL CHANGE. Alteration in social structures or culture over time.
SOCIAL FACTS. Social forces or patterns that are external to the individual.
SOCIAL DARWINISM. An early and now largely discredited view of social evolution
emphasizing the importance of "survival of the fittest" or struggle between
individuals, groups, or societies as the motor of development. Social Darwinism
became widely popular and was often used to justify existing inequalities.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION. A structural condition of society caused by rapid
change in social institutions, norms, and values.
SOCIAL EVOLUTION. Theories of social change which generally hold that human
societies move from simple to complex forms of organization.
SOCIAL FORCES.
The term refers to the fact that society and social organizations exert an
influence on individual human behavior.
SOCIAL GROUPS. Two or more individuals who interact in systematic ways with one
another and share a high degree of common identity. Groups may range in size
from dyads to large-scale societies.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS. Major structural entities in sociocultural systems
that address a basic need of the system. Institutions involve fixed modes of
behavior backed by strong norms and sanctions that tend to be followed by most
members of a society.
SOCIAL ISSUES. Problems that are the result of the institutional structure in a
society; these problems usually affect large numbers of people and are
experienced as individual problems. Examples in modern American society include
divorce, poverty, and immigration.
SOCIAL MOBILITY. Movement between different social
positions within a stratification system
SOCIAL MOVEMENT. A large grouping of people who are organized to bring about, or
to block, a a change in the sociocultural system.
SOCIAL REPRODUCTION. The processes which perpetuate characteristics of social
structure over periods of time (see also
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION).
SOCIAL ROLE. The expected patterned behavior of an individual occupying a
particular status position.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE. The pattern of human relationships formed by human groups and
institutions within a given society
SOCIALISM. An economic system in which the means of production and distribution
of goods and services are publically owned.
SOCIALIZATION. The lifelong processes through which humans develop an awareness
of social norms and values, and achieve a distinct sense of self.
SOCIETY. A society is a group of people who live in a particular territory, are
subject to a common system of political authority, and share a common culture.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES). A frequently used measure of class determined by some combination of income, occupational prestige, and years of education.
SOCIOBIOLOGY. An approach which attempts to explain the social behavior of
humans in terms of biological principles.
SOCIOCULTURAL MATERIALISM. An ecological-evolutionary world view. A
variant of cultural materialism, it is the world view developed and taught by
your instructor, F. Elwell (see also
CULTURAL MATERIALISM).
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION. A term used by C. Wright Mills that refers to the
application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological
questions. The ability to see the effects of social patterns and history on
human behavior.
SOCIOLOGY. The study of human behavior and societies, giving particular emphasis
to the industrialized world.
SOLID WASTE. Refers to the accumulation of noxious substances (see also
DEPLETION,
ENVIRONMENT, and
INTENSIFICATION).
SPLIT LABOR MARKET. A situation in which one group of laborers (usually
defined by race, sex, or ethnicity) is routinely paid less than other groups.
STANDING ARMY. A full-time professional army.
STATE SOCIETY. A society which possesses a formal apparatus of government.
STATELESS SOCIETY. A society which lacks formal institutions of government.
STATUS. A social position within a society. The term can also refer to the
social honor or prestige which a particular individual or group is accorded by
other members of a society.
STATUS OFFENCES. Acts that are illegal for juveniles but not for adults
(such as running away from home or engaging in sexual activities).
STATUS SET. All of the statuses held by an individual at a given time.
STEP-FAMILIES (BLENDED FAMILIES). Families in which at least one partner has
children from a previous marriage living in the home.
STEREOTYPE. A rigid and inflexible image of the characteristics a group.
Stereotypes attribute these characteristics to all individuals belonging to that
group .
STIGMA. A symbol (or a negative social label) of disgrace that affects a
person's social identity.
STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE (STAR WARS). A program that aims to protect
the U.S. from nuclear attack by developing the capabilities to shoot down enemy
missiles.
STRATIFICATION. The existence of structured inequalities in life chances between
groups in society.
STRIKE. A temporary work stoppage by a group of employees.
STRUCTURAL UNEMPLOYMENT. Unemployed workers whose skills and training have
become "obsolete" and who have little chance of ever finding employment at
comparable paying jobs.
STRUCTURE. Sociological term to refer to all human institutions, groups
and organizations.
SUBCULTURE. A group within the broader society that has values, norms and
lifestyle distinct from those of the majority.
SUBURBANIZATION. The development of areas of housing outside the political
boundaries of cities.
SUPERSTRUCTURE. A general term used in sociocultural materialism to refer
to the symbolic universe--the shared meanings, ideas, beliefs, values, and
ideologies that people give to the physical and social world. The
superstructure, of course, can be divided into cultural and mental components
(see also
CULTURAL SUPERSTRUCTURE, and
MENTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE).
SURPLUS VALUE. Marx's concept for the value of an individual's labor power
(calculated by the amount of value the labor contributes to the product minus
the amount of money paid to the worker by the capitalist). The conventional name
for this difference is profit--thus the whole capitalist system is based on
"expropriating" surplus value (or stealing labor) from workers.
SURVEILLANCE. Monitoring the activities of others in order to ensure compliant
behavior. Modern techniques of surveillance include not only video cameras and
microphones but also a whole range of computer surveillance as well.
SURVEY. A questionnaire or interview.
SWEATSHOPS. A workplace that violates one or more standards of workplace safety, labor laws, or worker compensation. Such shops now thrive in many peripheral countries.
SYMBOL. One item used to meaningfully represent another--as in the case of a
flag which symbolizes a nation.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM. A theoretical approach in sociology which focuses on
social reality as constructed through the daily interaction of individuals and
places strong emphasis on the role of symbols (gestures, signs, and language) as
core elements of this interaction.
TABOO. A sociocultural prohibition on some act, person, place, animal, or plant; public knowledge of the violation of a taboo brings on severe sanctions.
TAYLORISM. Also referred to as 'scientific management,' a set of ideas developed
by Frederick Winslow Taylor involving simplifying and coordinating the actions
of workers to produce maximum efficiency.
TECHNOLOGY. The application of logic, reason and knowledge to the problems of
exploiting raw materials from the environment. Social technologies employ
the same thought processes in addressing problems of human organization.
Technology involves the creation of material instruments (such as machines) used
in human interaction with nature as well as social instruments (such as
bureaucracy) used in human organization (see also
RATIONALIZATION)
TERRORISM. The use of violence or the threat of violence to achieve political,
social, or economic ends. Many would
restrict the definition to include only those acts committed by non-government
groups, but state terrorism is also a major factor in the social world.
TERTIARY SECTOR. That part of an economy that provides services (nursing homes,
psychological counseling, and so forth)--engaged in by both private and
government entitities.
THEORY. Summary statements of general principles which explain regularly
observed events.
THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES. Societies in which industrial production is only developed to a
limited degree. Many of these societies were former colonies of industrial
states. The majority of the world's population (over 70 percent) live in Third
World countries (see also
FIRST WORLD and
SECOND WORLD).
TITLE IX. A federal law prohibiting sex discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal funds.
TOTAL INSTITUTION. An organization in which individuals are isolated for long
periods of time as their lives are controlled and regulated by the
administration of the organization--such as a prison, mental hospital, or army
boot camps (see also
RESOCIALIZATION)..
TOTAL WAR. Warfare in which all the resources of the modern state are committed
including a large proportion of the population (both directly and indirectly),
all of the armed forces, and a large proportion of the industrial sector of the
society.
TOTALITARIANISM. Authoritarian government that attempts to regulate every
aspect of sociocultural life.
TOTEMISM. A system of religious belief studied by Durkheim which attributes
sacred qualities to a particular type of animal or plant.
TOTEMS. Symbol associated with a group given sacred significance; often an identifying insignia.
TRACKING. Grouping students in educational institutions based upon test scores predicting their abilities.
TRADING NETWORKS. Patterns of economic exchange between companies or countries.
TRADITIONAL STATES. Societies in which the production base is agriculture or
pastoralism (see also
AGRARIAN SOCIETIES and
PASTORAL SOCIETIES)
TRANSFORMATIVE MOVEMENT. A social movement to produce major social change in a
society.
TRANSITIONAL CLASSES. Marx's term to refer to social classes based on previous
relations of production which linger on in the beginning stages a new one--such
as peasants or landowners of a feudal system which has become capitalist.
TRANSNATIONAL COMPANIES. See MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES.
TRIAD. A group of
three; there is a tendency for such groups to separate into a dyad against one
(triadic separation).
UNCONSCIOUS. Freudian concept refering to motives and ideas unavailable to the
conscious mind of the individual.
UNDERCLASS. A class of individuals in mature industrial societies situated at
the bottom of the class system who have been systematically excluded from
participation in economic life. The underclass is normally composed of
people from ethnic or minority groups.
UNILINEAR EVOLUTION. A largely discredited view of social evolution according to
which all societies pass through the same stages of development.
UNION. A social organization set up to represent the worker's interests in both
the workplace and in the broader society as well.
UPPER CLASS. A social class roughly composed of the more affluent members of
society, especially those who have great wealth, control over businesses or hold
large numbers of stocks and shares.
URBAN ECOLOGY. An analysis of urban life that examines the relationship between
the city and its physical surroundings--based on an analogy with the adjustment
of plants and organisms to the physical environment.
URBANIZATION. The increasing concentration of the human population into
cities.
VALIDITY. The degree to which the measurement of a variable actually reflects
the intended concept. For example, how valid is IQ in measuring intelligence?
VALUES. Culturally defined standards held by human individuals or groups about
what is desirable, proper, beautiful, good or bad that serve as broad guidelines
for social life.
VARIABLE. A characteristic that varies in value or magnitude along which an
object, individual or group may be categorized, such as income or age.
VERTICAL MOBILITY. Movement up or down a social stratification system (see also
STRATIFICATION).
VESTED INTEREST. An expectation of private gain that often underlies the
expressed interest in a public issue.
VERSTEHEN. (German) to understand, perceive, know, and comprehend the nature and
significance of a phenomenon. To grasp or comprehend the meaning intended or
expressed by another. Weber used the term to refer to the social scientist's
attempt to understand both the intention and the context of human action.
VICTIMLESS CRIME. Violation of law in which there is no other person (aside from the offender) victimized, such as drug-taking or illegal gambling.
VOLUNTARY
ORGANIZATION. Groups and organizations that are formed to achieve personal or
socially worthwhile goals (aside from monetary profit).
WELFARE. Government aid (in the form of services and money) to the poor.
WEALTH. Accumulated money and material possessions controlled by an individual,
group or organization.
WEALTHFARE. Government aid to the upper and middle classes. Often times
this aid is disguised in the form of tax breaks (a deduction for interest on
home mortgages) or subsidized services (higher education).
WELFARE STATE. A government system which provides a range of human services for
its citizens.
WHITE-COLLAR CRIME. Criminal activities carried out by white-collar or
professional workers in the course of their jobs.
WORKING CLASS. A social class of industrial societies broadly composed of people
involved in manual occupation. The bulk of these jobs are unskilled, poorly paid
and provide few benefits or job security.
WORLD-SYSTEMS THEORY. Immanuel Wallerstein's theoretical approach which analyzes societies in terms of their position within global economic systems. According to Wallerstein, the Capitalist World Economy now determines the relationships among nation states.
X
XENOPHOBIA. The fear and/or hatred of foreigners.
ZERO POPULATION GROWTH (ZPG). Population stability achieved when each woman has
no more than two children.
ZWECKRATIONAL. Rational action in relation to a goal. From Max Weber
(the greatest sociologist who ever lived) and used extensively in his theory of
social action (see also
RATIONALIZATION, and
MENTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE)